Soil pH: A measure of soil acidity or alkalinity, defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H⁺) activity in the soil solution; it governs nutrient solubility and microbial activity.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): The total quantity of exchangeable cations a soil can adsorb and hold on negatively charged surfaces (clay and organic matter), expressed as cmol(+)/kg; it reflects nutrient retention capacity.

Electrical Conductivity (EC): A measure of the soil solution’s ability to conduct electrical current, indicating the concentration of soluble salts; commonly used as an index of soil salinity.

Soil Organic Carbon (SOC): The carbon component of soil organic matter derived from plant and microbial residues; a key indicator of soil fertility, structure, and biological activity.

Base Saturation: The proportion (%) of the cation exchange capacity occupied by basic cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺); it reflects soil fertility status and degree of acidity.

Soil Salinity: The accumulation of soluble salts (e.g., chlorides, sulfates of Na, Ca, Mg) in the soil to levels that negatively affect plant growth, typically assessed via EC.

Soil Sodicity: A condition where sodium (Na⁺) dominates the exchange complex (high exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP), leading to soil dispersion, poor structure, and reduced permeability.

Nutrient Availability: The fraction of essential nutrients present in forms accessible for plant uptake, controlled by soil pH, CEC, moisture, microbial activity, and chemical transformations.

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